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The Untold Business Behind Data Bundles in Ghana — The GH¢24.4bn Revenue, the 15–15–10 Policy, and the Hidden Economics of the Bundle Menu

The Untold Business Behind Data Bundles in Ghana — The GH¢24.4bn Revenue, the 15–15–10 Policy, and the Hidden Economics of the Bundle Menu

The Untold Business Behind Data Bundles in Ghana-MTN controls 73.87% of Ghana’s mobile market, made GH¢13.4bn from data in 2025, and taxes add nearly 40% to consumer bills. Our deep‑dive analysis reveals the bundle menu economics, the July 1 policy, wholesale roaming pricing, and three scenarios for digital affordability.

Executive Introduction

Every time a Ghanaian consumer purchases a data bundle, they are not merely buying connectivity. They are participating in one of the most opaque and concentrated markets in the country’s economy. The bundle menu — a long scroll of daily, weekly, monthly, social and special offers — is the carefully engineered interface between a dominant operator and its customers. Understanding how that menu is designed, priced and policed is the key to understanding why Ghana’s internet remains simultaneously cheap in global rankings and expensive for most of its citizens.

The numbers are stark. By the end of 2025, MTN Ghana controlled 73.87 per cent of the mobile subscription market, leaving Telecel with 18.3 per cent and AT Ghana with just 7.82 per cent. In the data segment, MTN’s grip is even tighter, with a 55.9 per cent jump in profit after tax to GH¢7.8 billion, service revenue reaching GH¢24.4 billion, and data revenue alone surging 48.8 per cent to GH¢13.4 billion. Active data subscribers grew to 19.9 million, and average monthly data consumption per user soared by 55.4 per cent, reaching 18.8 GB by early 2026.

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The business of data bundles is not a story of competitive pricing or efficient markets. It is a story of market power, regulatory intervention and a tax burden that adds nearly 40 per cent to what consumers pay. In June 2025, Communications Minister Sam George announced that the government was reviewing what he described as a “nearly 39 per cent tax burden on telecommunications services”, including VAT, NHIL, GETFund levy, COVID‑19 levy and the Communications Service Tax. That same month, the government directed operators to increase bundle values by up to 15 per cent without raising prices — a mandate that forced MTN to restore its GH¢399 bundle to 214GB (up from 92.88GB), Telecel to raise its GH¢400 bundle to 250GB (from 90GB) and AT Ghana to raise its equivalent to 236GB.

This profile goes inside the business of data bundles: how operators price for profit, how the July 1 mandate changed the bundle calculus, how the wholesale roaming price ceiling (GH¢0.0032 per MB) could reshape competition, how the digital divide entrenches MTN’s dominance and what the future holds for Ghana’s data pricing. The bundle menu is not a consumer convenience. It is a business strategy — and it is time to explain it.

The Economics of the Bundle Menu — How Data Is Priced for Profit

The data bundle menu that appears on every Ghanaian mobile phone is the result of careful price discrimination. Operators do not charge a flat per‑gigabyte rate. Instead, they offer a tiered menu of packages segmented by volume, validity period, time of day and specific applications. This structure allows MTN, Telecel and AT Ghana to capture consumer surplus at multiple price points.

The typical bundle menu includes daily bundles (GH¢1–GH¢5 for 500MB–2GB), which target low‑income users who cannot afford larger commitments; weekly bundles (GH¢10–GH¢40 for 3GB–10GB), which target moderate users; monthly bundles (GH¢50–GH¢400 for 15GB–250GB), which target heavy users, salaried workers and SMEs; social and night bundles, which offer discounted rates for off‑peak hours and for specific apps (WhatsApp, YouTube, TikTok); and unlimited bundles, which are add‑ons to existing plans with Fair Usage Policy (FUP) caps, typically around 100GB per period.

The logic of price discrimination is simple: a student on a tight budget buys a GH¢1 daily bundle, paying a high effective per‑gigabyte rate. A salaried worker buys a GH¢150 monthly bundle, paying a much lower effective rate. The operator extracts value from both. The per‑gigabyte cost of providing data does not vary significantly between these two customers — the infrastructure is the same. The price difference is pure surplus capture.

High‑volume bundles offer the lowest per‑gigabyte rates — MTN’s GH¢399 plan delivers 214GB at approximately GH¢1.86 per GB, while Telecel’s GH¢400 plan delivers 250GB at approximately GH¢1.60 per GB. Low‑volume daily bundles can cost as much as GH¢10–GH¢20 per GB in effective terms, which can exceed the actual value of the data. For consumers, the message is clear: buy in bulk to save. But buying in bulk requires upfront capital and predictable income — precisely what low‑income households do not have. The bundle menu therefore functions as a regressive tax on poverty.

The table below illustrates the effective per‑gigabyte rates across selected bundles following the July 2025 adjustments.

Bundle || Price (GH¢) || Data Volume || Effective Cost per GB (GH¢) || Operator

  • Daily (1‑2GB) 1–5 500MB‑2GB ~2–5 All
  • Weekly (3–10GB) 10–40 3GB‑10GB ~1.5–4 All
  • Monthly (15–60GB) 50–200 15GB‑60GB ~1.5–3 All
  • Telecel GH¢400 400 250GB ~1.60 Telecel
  • MTN GH¢399 399 214GB ~1.86 MTN
  • AT Ghana GH¢400 400 236GB ~1.69 AT Ghana

The table illustrates a critical economic reality: Telecel offers a lower per‑gigabyte rate than MTN at the high‑volume end, yet MTN maintains overwhelming market dominance. Price alone does not determine market share.

The July 1 Policy — When Government Mandated a Bundle Restructuring

On June 10, 2025, Communications Minister Sam George announced a directive that fundamentally altered the bundle landscape. Effective July 1, 2025, all three telecom operators were required to increase the volume of data offered under existing bundles without increasing prices. MTN was required to implement a 15 per cent increase in data volumes across all packages. Telecel and AT Ghana were required to implement a 10 per cent increase.

The most dramatic changes affected high‑value bundles. AT Ghana’s GH¢400 bundle increased from 195GB to 236GB. Telecel’s GH¢400 bundle surged from 90GB to 250GB — a more than tripling of data volume. MTN, which had previously reduced its GH¢399 bundle to 92.88GB at a GH¢350 price point, was required to restore the GH¢399 bundle to offer 214GB.

The minister stated that the increases “come at a considerable cost to the network operators” and commended them “for making this effort for Ghanaians”. To ensure compliance, the National Communications Authority (NCA) was directed to monitor implementation and apply sanctions to any operator that failed to comply. The NCA also began quarterly billing integrity tests starting in Q3 2025 to verify accurate billing practices across popular apps and websites.

The July 1 policy is not a price reduction. It is a value increase. Consumers now receive more data for the same price, but the price itself has not fallen. For a consumer who could only afford a GH¢30 bundle before July 1, they can still only afford a GH¢30 bundle after July 1. The policy has not lowered the cost of entry into the digital economy. It has increased the volume of data received by those who are already paying for connectivity — a progressive outcome, but not a structural fix.

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More fundamentally, the mandate does not address the underlying drivers of high data costs. It does not increase competition. It does not reduce the tax burden. It does not lower energy costs or prevent fibre vandalism. It is a one‑time adjustment that operators can absorb without fundamentally altering their pricing strategies — especially MTN, whose record profits give it ample room to offer higher bundle values without affecting its bottom line.

The Market Power — Why MTN Can Still Lead While Telecel Offers Better Value

The most puzzling feature of Ghana’s data market is that MTN continues to dominate despite not offering the lowest per‑gigabyte rates. Telecel’s GH¢400 plan delivers 250GB at approximately GH¢1.60 per GB — a rate that undercuts MTN’s GH¢399 plan (GH¢1.86 per GB). Yet MTN holds 73.87 per cent of the mobile subscription market, Telecel only 18.3 per cent.

The explanation lies in three factors. First, network quality is the single most important determinant of customer loyalty in data services. MTN has invested GH¢6.4 billion in capital expenditure, achieving 4G population coverage of 99.2 per cent. Telecel, despite its recent investments, cannot match that coverage. Second, brand loyalty and network effects create switching costs. MTN has built a loyal customer base over nearly 30 years in the market. Its success has created strong network effects in voice and data services, leading to inelastic demand despite higher data prices compared to rivals. Third, regulatory failure: MTN was designated a Significant Market Power (SMP) in 2020 under the Electronic Communications Act, 2008 (Act 775), yet its market share has grown from 57 per cent of voice and 68 per cent of data at designation to 73.87 per cent overall by 2025. The SMP designation, intended to curb MTN’s dominance, has instead coincided with its entrenchment.

The Telecel‑AT Ghana restructuring — effectively a merger that will combine 7.82 per cent and 18.3 per cent into a single entity — would account for less than 30 per cent of the market, well below MTN’s dominant position. As one analysis puts it, “the central question remains whether this restructuring can enhance competition and consumer welfare by creating a stronger rival to the market leader. The absorption of AT Ghana’s 3.2 million customers will boost Telecel’s subscriber base from approximately 4 million to 7.2 million, increasing its market share from 15 per cent to about 27 per cent. However, MTN’s active data subscribers already stand at 19.9 million. The gap remains vast.

The NCA has proposed a wholesale roaming price ceiling of GH¢0.0032 per MB of data usage — a regulated rate that could lower the cost for smaller operators to access MTN’s network infrastructure. However, the proposal was still under consultation as of May 2026. For AT Ghana, the merged entity and any new entrant, regulated wholesale roaming is the single most important competition tool available. Without it, MTN’s infrastructure advantage will remain insurmountable.

The Hidden Burden — 39% in Taxes and the Cost of Keeping Sites Powered

Two major cost components are invisible to consumers but account for a substantial share of what they pay: taxation and energy.

The tax burden, estimated by the Communications Minister at nearly 39 per cent of consumer data costs, includes VAT (recently reduced from 21.9% to 20%), NHIL, GETFund levy, COVID‑19 levy, the Communications Service Tax and other regulatory fees. The cumulative effect is regressive: a market woman earning GH¢500 per month who spends GH¢30 on a data bundle pays a higher proportion of her income in telecom taxes than a corporate executive earning GH¢20,000. The government is actively reviewing these taxes, with the Minister stating: “If we are able to rationalise the almost 39 per cent tax build-up in the sector, we should see a drop in data pricing”.

The industry’s contribution to public finances is substantial. MTN Ghana paid GH¢10.5 billion in direct and indirect taxes in 2025, up from GH¢8.6 billion the previous year, plus a further GH¢1.3 billion in fees and levies to regulatory and government agencies, representing 71.66 per cent of the NCA’s total revenue. The government’s willingness to reduce taxes will depend on finding alternative revenue sources — a difficult trade‑off in a fiscal environment still recovering from debt restructuring.

Energy is the silent cost centre. Each of Ghana’s thousands of mobile towers consumes significant electricity. The grid is unreliable; diesel generators fill the gap. Diesel accounts for 30–60 per cent of a tower’s operational costs in remote areas. The government is negotiating a dedicated electricity tariff for the telecom sector, similar to rates granted to mining companies. In July 2025, the PURC approved new telecom tariffs that could reduce the cost of power for cell sites, with the Minister stating that “once the telecom tariff is introduced, it will reduce by a certain factorial the cost of power and the cost buildup of telecoms”. However, the tariff had not yet been implemented as of May 2026.

The combination of taxes and energy costs creates a floor beneath which retail data prices cannot easily fall without pushing operators into losses. MTN’s market dominance and record profits allow it to absorb these costs while still delivering extraordinary returns to shareholders. For Telecel and AT Ghana — now merging — the same costs represent a much heavier burden.

The Policy Dilemma — What the Government Can and Cannot Do

The government’s approach to data pricing has been interventionist by necessity. In a market as concentrated as Ghana’s telecom sector, pure free‑market competition does not produce lower prices — it produces a single dominant player extracting monopoly rents.

The Communications Minister has acknowledged the limits of his authority: “In a free market, I cannot impose prices, just as the Minister for Trade cannot instruct GUTA members to reduce theirs”. Yet the July 1 mandate is precisely an imposition — a regulatory intervention that forces operators to increase bundle values without increasing prices. The Minister has also acknowledged that addressing the 39 per cent tax burden requires coordination with the Ministry of Finance, which has been described as “ongoing” but with no concrete outcome announced.

The government is pursuing a multi‑pronged strategy: tax rationalisation to reduce the near‑40 per cent burden; a dedicated electricity tariff to lower energy costs; the Telecel‑AT merger to create a stronger competitor; wholesale roaming price regulation to lower infrastructure access costs; and enforcement of compulsory service quality standards through NCA audits.

Each of these interventions is sensible. None is sufficient alone. The fundamental constraint is the structure of the market itself. MTN’s 73.87 per cent share — built over nearly 30 years of consistent investment — is not easily reversed. Telecel and AT Ghana, even combined, will remain distant second players. The wholesale roaming price ceiling, if implemented, could lower the cost for smaller operators to access MTN’s network. But the ceiling was still under consultation as of March 2026, and its impact will depend on enforcement — a traditional weakness of Ghanaian telecom regulation.

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The Digital Divide — Why Lower Per‑GB Rates Do Not Translate into Inclusion

Ghana ranks as the third‑cheapest market in Africa for mobile data in absolute terms, with an average cost of 1GB of about **0.38) and Nigeria ($0.39) are cheaper. Yet a 5GB mobile data package represents approximately 3.06 per cent of monthly GNI per capita — well above the UN Broadband Commission’s affordability target of 2 per cent.

The affordability gap is compounded by device costs. A 5G‑enabled smartphone can cost GH¢1,000–GH¢2,000 or more. Even a basic 4G smartphone can cost GH¢300–GH¢500. For a household living on GH¢600 per month, a GH¢400 smartphone represents two‑thirds of a month’s income.

The bundle menu, as currently structured, does not solve the affordability problem. The high‑value bundles that offer the lowest per‑gigabyte rates require upfront capital that low‑income households do not have. The daily and weekly bundles that are accessible to low‑income users impose much higher effective per‑gigabyte rates. The poorest consumers pay the most for data — a regressive outcome that no amount of headline per‑gigabyte averaging can disguise.

As the Communications Minister has acknowledged, “the majority of Ghanaians have not been able to take advantage of digital services, not because they don’t want to, but because we have not yet made them affordable”. The bundle menu is a pricing strategy designed for profit maximisation, not for inclusion. Until the underlying cost structure — market concentration, taxes, energy — is addressed, the digital divide will persist.

The Future of Data Bundles — Three Scenarios

Scenario One: Gradual Improvement (65 per cent probability)

In this base case, MTN’s market share remains above 70 per cent but does not increase further. Telecel, after absorbing AT Ghana, stabilises its network and gradually improves coverage, but remains a distant second with no meaningful price competition. Tax rationalisation proceeds slowly, with the near‑40 per cent burden reduced to about 30 per cent over three to five years. The wholesale roaming price ceiling is implemented but its impact is limited by enforcement weaknesses. Data prices in absolute terms continue to fall modestly, but affordability for low‑income households remains a challenge. The per‑gigabyte rate of MTN’s high‑volume bundles continues to decline, but daily and weekly bundle rates remain high.

Scenario Two: Stalled Progress (25 per cent probability)

The Telecel‑AT absorption proves operationally difficult, and Telecel fails to achieve the coverage and service quality needed to challenge MTN. The NCA’s SMP oversight remains weak, and MTN’s market share edges toward 80 per cent. Tax rationalisation stalls due to fiscal pressures, and the 39 per cent tax burden remains intact. The wholesale roaming price ceiling is delayed or not enforced. Data prices stop falling in real terms. The bundle menu becomes more concentrated, with MTN introducing new high‑volume tiers to extract more surplus from heavy users. The per‑gigabyte rate for low‑volume daily bundles remains high, perpetuating the regressive tax on poverty.

Scenario Three: Accelerated Breakthrough (10 per cent probability)

The wholesale roaming price ceiling is implemented effectively, lowering the cost for Telecel and any new entrant to access MTN’s network. The Telecel‑AT entity successfully challenges MTN on price and coverage in key regions, introducing competitive pressure that forces MTN to reduce its per‑gigabyte rates across all bundle tiers. Tax rationalisation reduces the telecom tax burden to about 25 per cent of consumer costs. The dedicated electricity tariff is implemented, significantly lowering energy costs for all operators. The combination of lower infrastructure costs, tax relief and genuine competition drives data prices down sharply. The 5GB‑to‑income ratio falls below 2 per cent by 2028, and Ghana becomes a regional leader in affordable, inclusive internet access.

The most likely path is Scenario One: gradual improvement, not a breakthrough. The bundle menu will continue to evolve, per‑gigabyte rates will continue to fall, but the digital divide will persist. The structural barriers — market concentration, tax burden, energy costs — are too deep for a quick fix. The government’s policy interventions are the right direction, but implementation will determine the outcome.

Conclusion

The business of data bundles in Ghana is a story of market concentration, regulatory intervention and a tax burden that adds nearly 40 per cent to what consumers pay. MTN’s 73.87 per cent market share, built over nearly 30 years of consistent investment, is the single most important fact about Ghana’s digital economy. It explains why Telecel can offer a better per‑gigabyte rate and still remain a distant second. It explains why the government’s July 1 mandate forced MTN to increase bundle values but did not force a reduction in absolute prices. It explains why the NCA’s proposed wholesale roaming price ceiling is the most important competition tool on the table — and why its implementation is taking so long.

The bundle menu is not a neutral pricing interface. It is a profit‑maximising tool designed to extract surplus from different customer segments. High‑volume bundles offer low per‑gigabyte rates for those who can afford upfront capital. Low‑volume daily bundles impose much higher effective rates on those who cannot. The poorest consumers pay the most for data — a regressive outcome that no amount of headline per‑gigabyte averaging can disguise.

The government’s policy interventions — tax rationalisation, dedicated electricity tariffs, the Telecel‑AT merger, wholesale roaming price regulation — are the right direction. But directions are not destinations. The distance between the current bundle menu and genuinely affordable internet for all Ghanaians is measured not in megabytes or cedis, but in the political will to restructure a market that has become too concentrated, too profitable for one operator and too expensive for most citizens.

The Communications Minister has stated that “after eight years of poor management, we cannot fix everything in four months”. That is a realistic assessment. The question is whether the next four months, and the four after that, will produce the structural changes that Ghana’s digital economy desperately needs — or whether the bundle menu will continue to be, for most Ghanaians, a window into connectivity they cannot truly afford. The technology is ready. The infrastructure is being built. The policy direction is clear. The missing ingredient is the will to make data genuinely affordable for all — and that is the untold story behind the bundle menu.

Quick Facts Box
Category || Details

  • MTN Ghana Mobile Subscription Share (2025) 73.87%
  • Telecel Subscription Share 18.3%
  • AT Ghana Subscription Share 7.82%
  • MTN Active Data Subscribers (end‑2025) 19.9 million
  • MTN Data Revenue (2025) GH¢13.4 billion (+48.8% YoY)
  • MTN Profit After Tax (2025) GH¢7.8 billion (+55.9% YoY)
  • Average Monthly Data Usage per User (Q1 2026) 18.8 GB
  • Telecel GH¢400 Bundle (post‑July 2025) 250 GB
  • MTN GH¢399 Bundle (post‑July 2025) 214 GB
  • AT Ghana GH¢400 Bundle (post‑July 2025) 236 GB
  • Estimated Telecom Tax Burden Nearly 39% of consumer costs
  • Wholesale Data Roaming Proposed Ceiling GH¢0.0032 per MB
  • 5GB Data as % of Monthly GNI per Capita 3.06% (UN affordability threshold is 2%)
  • Average Cost of 1GB Mobile Data (mid‑2025) $0.40 (3rd cheapest in Africa)
  • Affordability Comparisons Malawi $0.38, Nigeria $0.39, Ghana $0.40
  • MTN Ghana 2025 Tax Payment GH¢10.5 billion (plus GH¢1.3bn fees to NCA)
  • MTN 4G Population Coverage 99.2%
  • MTN 2025 Capital Expenditure GH¢6.4 billion
  • Regulatory Authorities NCA, Ministry of Communications
  • Key Legislation Electronic Communications Act 2008 (Act 775)
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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Q1: How much does a data bundle cost in Ghana in 2026?

Data bundle prices vary by operator, volume and validity. Daily bundles range from GH¢1–GH¢5 for 500MB–2GB. Weekly bundles range from GH¢10–GH¢40 for 3GB–10GB. Monthly bundles range from GH¢50–GH¢400 for 15GB–250GB. The most popular high‑volume bundles are MTN’s GH¢399 for 214GB, Telecel’s GH¢400 for 250GB, and AT Ghana’s GH¢400 for 236GB.

Q2: What changed under the July 1, 2025 data bundle directive?

The government directed operators to increase data volumes without raising prices. MTN increased volumes by 15 per cent across all bundles. Telecel and AT Ghana increased by 10 per cent. The most dramatic changes: Telecel’s GH¢400 bundle rose from 90GB to 250GB; MTN restored its GH¢399 bundle from 92.88GB (at GH¢350) to 214GB; AT Ghana’s GH¢400 bundle rose from 195GB to 236GB.

Q3: Why is MTN so dominant in Ghana’s data market?

MTN controls 73.87 per cent of the mobile subscription market, built through nearly 30 years of consistent investment, network quality and brand loyalty. MTN has invested GH¢6.4 billion in capital expenditure, achieving 4G population coverage of 99.2 per cent. Telecel and AT Ghana, even combined, would account for less than 30 per cent of the market.

Q4: How much tax is added to data bundle prices in Ghana?

The Communications Minister has stated that taxes make up nearly 39 per cent of what consumers pay for data. This includes VAT, NHIL, GETFund levy, COVID‑19 levy, Communications Service Tax and other regulatory fees. The government is reviewing these taxes, but significant reductions have not yet been implemented.

Q5: Is Ghana’s internet really one of Africa’s cheapest?

In absolute terms, yes. The average cost of 1GB of mobile data in Ghana is about 0.38) and Nigeria ($0.39). However, a 5GB data package represents 3.06 per cent of monthly GNI per capita, exceeding the UN’s 2 per cent affordability threshold.

Q6: What is the wholesale roaming price ceiling and why does it matter?

In March 2026, the NCA proposed a wholesale roaming price ceiling of GH¢0.0032 per MB of data usage. This regulated rate is intended to lower the cost for smaller operators to access MTN’s network infrastructure, potentially reducing barriers to entry and increasing competition. The proposal was still under public consultation as of late 2026.

Q7: How much profit did MTN Ghana make from data in 2025?

MTN Ghana’s data revenue surged 48.8 per cent to GH¢13.4 billion in 2025. Total service revenue reached GH¢24.4 billion, and profit after tax jumped 55.9 per cent to GH¢7.8 billion. MTN Ghana now accounts for roughly 31.6 per cent of total equity market capitalisation on the Ghana Stock Exchange.

Q8: Why does Telecel offer a better per‑gigabyte rate but still have fewer customers?

Telecel’s GH¢400 plan delivers 250GB at approximately GH¢1.60 per GB — a lower per‑gigabyte rate than MTN’s GH¢399 plan (GH¢1.86 per GB). However, MTN’s superior network coverage (99.2% 4G), brand loyalty and network effects allow it to maintain dominant market share despite higher prices. Consumers prioritise reliability over marginal cost differences.

Q9: What is the Telecel‑AT Ghana restructuring?

AT Ghana, the state‑owned operator with over $289 million in debt, is being absorbed by Telecel. The combined entity will control about 26–27 per cent of the market — still well below MTN’s 73.87 per cent. The restructuring is intended to create a stronger competitor, but its success depends on Telecel’s ability to invest in network upgrades and service quality.

Q10: How does Ghana’s data pricing compare to Nigeria’s?

Nigeria has achieved lower absolute data prices ($0.39 per GB, Ghana $0.40) through more intense competition — four major operators actively compete. Ghana’s highly concentrated market (one dominant operator) has not produced the same competitive pressure on prices. Nigeria’s per‑gigabyte rates are slightly lower, but the difference is marginal; the real gap is in market structure and competition.

Q11: What is the government doing to lower data costs?

The government is pursuing five interventions: tax rationalisation (to reduce the near‑40% burden), a dedicated electricity tariff (to lower energy costs for cell sites), the Telecel‑AT merger (to create a stronger competitor), wholesale roaming price regulation (to lower infrastructure access costs), and mandatory bundle value increases (implemented July 2025). Tax and energy reforms have not yet been implemented.

Q12: What is the future outlook for data bundle pricing in Ghana?

The most likely scenario is gradual improvement. Data prices will continue to fall slowly, driven by policy‑mandated bundle value increases and modest infrastructure cost reductions, but affordability for low‑income households will remain a challenge. Per‑gigabyte rates for high‑volume bundles will continue to decline, but daily and weekly bundle rates — which affect the poorest consumers — will remain high. A genuine breakthrough would require effective competition, successful tax rationalisation and implementation of the wholesale roaming price ceiling — all of which remain uncertain.

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